The combination of transgenderism with Thailand's most macho sport caught the world's attention in March 1998. The fuss was over Nong Toom, a young crossdressing Muay Thai boxer who expressed his sexual desire for men in no uncertain terms. Because the kickboxing establishment and the Thai general public appeared to embrace Nong Toom, the international media used this story as an opportunity to comment on Thailand's acceptance of transgenderism and homosexuality. For example, The New York Times declared that "unlike most of its East Asian neighbors, Thailand is not a closet society, and people have no problem with transvestites", while according to the Associated Press, "most Thais, in fact, accept transvestites".
Indeed, the perception that homosexuality is an accepted part of Thai culture is widespread among non-Thai observers. Thailand is frequently portrayed as a country in which discrimination is absent. Joe Cummings, whose Lonely Planet guidebook is found in most travelers' backpacks, states that "Thai culture is very tolerant of homosexuality, both male and female . . . [T]here is no 'gay movement' in Thailand as such since there's no anti-gay establishment to move against. Whether speaking of dress or mannerism, lesbians and gays are generally accepted without comment" (1997: 135). The Gay Travel Guide also paints a positive picture: "Katoeys - whether transsexuals . . . or simply transvestites - are a common sight in Thailand and public crossdressing, for whatever reason, rarely raises a plucked eyebrow or a snigger" (Hammer 1997: 21).
Peter Jackson, an Australian academic, likewise agrees that Thai culture accepts homosexuality, commenting that "significantly, Western-style homophobia is distinctly absent among the overwhelming majority of Thai males. . . Indeed, anti-homosexual violence is as uncharacteristic of Thai society as it is characteristic of traditional Western societies" (1995: 161). Jackson argues that a Thai gay political movement does not exist because "homosexuality is not illegal and homophobic violence is not an issue" (267).
So, where do human rights for gays and lesbians in Thailand fit into this picture? It seems logical to assume that if Thai society is as accepting of homosexuality as Western observers claim it to be, then violations of the rights of gays and lesbians are not an issue here.
Unfortunately, asserting that homosexuality is accepted in Thai culture offers a distortion of Thai attitudes. In fact, human rights abuses against gays and lesbians do occur in Thailand. While there are no laws circumscribing homosexual behavior, there are also no laws offering protection from bias. For instance, in the mass media gays and lesbians are typically portrayed in a stereotypical manner, while among academics and mental health professionals homosexuality itself is characterized as unnatural and something to be cured. Gays and lesbians also face bias in the workplace, since standards regulating workers' appearances are legal. Beginning with the job interview and lasting throughout their careers, many gays and lesbians in certain professions find it necessary to hide their identities at work in order to avoid discrimination and malicious gossip.
But if this is at all true, why has Thailand achieved its reputation for tolerance? The answer is that on the surface Thailand does seem accepting of homosexuality. Crossdressing and androgynous gays and lesbians are ubiquitous and easily noticed on the streets and working in shops (though not usually in offices). Free from physical or verbal harassment in public, to the outsider these men and women appear seamlessly integrated into the fabric of Thai society. As mentioned above, there are no legal proscriptions against homosexuality; nor are there religious sanctions. Homosexuality is not considered to be "sinful" according to Buddhist teachings. However, we must take care not to conclude that an absence of Western-style sanctions against homosexuality in Thailand necessarily implies social acceptance.
Thai culture places a great deal of importance on maintaining one's composure in public situations. To show anger, disappointment, or disapproval to others indicates weakness and lack of control. Strong emotions are not expressed through outbursts, but are instead channeled through less direct, though equally effective, outlets. Consequently, gossip serves as a social sanction, in that people take care to avoid being its subject. In the same way, staring pointedly at someone is enough to register displeasure and cause embarrassment to the other party. Likewise, to ignore or ostracize others carries much negative weight, particularly in a culture which places a high value on familial and inter-personal relations.
The purpose of this brief description of one set of Thai social mores is to illustrate that things are not always what they appear to be. A lack of public harassment or antiquated sodomy laws do not mean that Thai gays and lesbians are free from discrimination or disapproval.
In fact, the human rights of homosexuals can be taken away at any time. For example, gay men are stereotypically portrayed in the Thai entertainment and news media as emotionally and physically violent. Criminal cases involving gay men typically receive a great deal of sensationalistic and biased coverage; violent acts are presented as being a natural consequence of a person's "homosexual nature". In late 1996 these negative attitudes culminated in the national teacher's college decision to prohibit gay men from registering as students. Government officials supported the ban, claiming that gay men were poor role-models for the country's children. A huge protest followed, involving a number of international human rights and gay/lesbian groups. The most active Thai organization was Anjaree, a lesbian group, whose efforts proved instrumental in overturning the prohibition.
At present Anjaree remains the only organization in Thailand challenging human rights violations against gays and lesbians. This begs the question: why have lesbians organized to fight for their human rights while gay men have not? Part of the answer lies in the differences between the social realities of men and women, and the ways in which Thai culture privileges the masculine over the feminine.
Although homoerotic behavior is looked down on by many Thais, gender-normative gay men benefit from the Thai separation of the public and private spheres. What a man does in the bedroom is not considered relevant as long as he dresses and behaves "properly" (i.e. like a "real" man) in public. It is also important that a man have a wife and family. However, the allowance which Thai culture makes for extra-marital affairs enables a man to fulfill his social duty while at the same time allowing him to pursue outside (homo)sexual interests. Thus, being gay is a personal, not political, issue since neither the state nor religion interferes in a man's private sexual relationships. It is easy for the gender-normative Thai gay man to hold a respectable place in society while also making use of the many public and private meeting spaces available to gay men, ranging from parks to gymnasiums. It is only when evidence of homosexual behavior finds its way into the public sphere that a man stands to suffer embarrassment and damage to his reputation.
Transgendered and effeminate gay men (collectively known as katoey) bear the brunt of Thai discrimination against homosexuals due to their conspicuous appearance. During a year-long research project investigating Thai social attitudes toward homosexuality, I learned that while katoey do not suffer harassment in public, many of their struggles take place with parents or relatives who are ashamed of their presence. Virtually all of the young people I spoke to during the course of my project expressed disappointment and sadness at the thought of having a son who is katoey. Katoey are particularly vulnerable to sexual violence, as they are considered "fair game" by men. Jackson (1995) recounts numerous accounts of young katoey who were sexually abused by relatives and teachers.
Both gender-normative gay men and katoey often organize themselves informally through personal networks which are centered around bars or places of work. Formal organizations have been created chiefly to deal with the AIDS crisis or the sex work industry. Because there has been little interest among gay men in forming groups to address human rights concerns, a situation has arisen in which gay men are unprepared to protest effectively against human rights violations or respond collectively when such cases arise. Instead, a single lesbian organization has had to shoulder the burden of fighting for the human rights of gays and lesbians in Thailand.
Although Thai culture allows women to be physically close with one another, intimacy of a sexual nature between women is condemned. Women are pressured to marry and raise a family; it is not uncommon for a woman believed to be lesbian to be raped by a male relative or friend in order to "change" her into a "real" woman. Many lesbians do not have the same opportunities as men to meet and socialize. While Bangkok is home to numerous saunas, bars, and discos catering to gay men, lesbians have few public spaces in which they can gather. This is especially a problem in suburban and rural areas, since the lack of a visible lesbian social network can lead to isolation and alienation. Furthermore, many rural Thais still believe that it is "improper" for women to travel unaccompanied at night.
Anjaree was formed in 1986 to address these issues. Stressing that lesbians' rights are women's rights, Anjaree has been active in challenging the traditional beliefs of Thai culture which oppress women and circumscribe their sexuality. One of its primary goals is to provide a social and support network for women who love women. The group is also dedicated to educating the public about lesbianism and taking a stand against human rights abuses.
With membership now over 500 women, Anjaree has increased efforts to make itself visible to the public during the past year. It recently launched Anjareesan , a small magazine addressing lesbian issues, which is distributed across the country through mainstream bookstores. The group also has begun to actively fight against negative representations of lesbians and gays in the media. To this end, Anjaree organized a number of press conferences and panel discussions in Bangkok in 1998. It also issued a press release criticizing the biased manner in which Thai newspapers handled a murder case in which the suspect was a gay man. Most importantly, this past October Anjaree participated in the Fair For Rights and Freedom at Thammasat University in Bangkok. This event commemorated the 25th anniversary of the student uprising against military dictatorship, and was made up of a large number of human rights organizations. The appearance of an Anjaree booth at the fair was significant because it was the first time the group had presented itself to the general public in such a way. Thousands of people passed by Anjaree's displays; thousands of brochures were taken.
In 1997 Thailand drafted and ratified a new constitution, one which guarantees equal rights to all Thai citizens. The catch is that existing discriminatory practices do not automatically face censure. Rather, individual cases must be challenged in the courts in order to set legal precedents for the future. The difference the new constitution makes is that there is now the possibility of creating laws which can protect gays and lesbians from human rights abuses. The lesbians involved with Anjaree are already on the path to fighting for these laws. However, the circumstances that will stimulate the gay population into forming its own human rights organizations remain to be seen.
References
Associated Press. 1998. "Transvestite Thai Kickboxer Triumphant in Bangkok Debut," Posted on the CNN Sports Illustrated web site (cnnsi.com), February 25.
Cummings, Joe. 1997. Thailand: Lonely Planet Travel Survival Kit. Hawthorn, Australia: Lonely Planet Publications.
Hammon, Damon. 1997. 1998 Thai Scene Gay Guide. Swaffam, England: The Gay Men's Press.
Jackson, Peter A. 1995. Dear Uncle Go: Male Homosexuality in Thailand. Bangkok: Bua Luang Books.
Kahn, Joseph. 1998. "Was That a Lady I Saw You Boxing?" The New York Times, April 4, A4.
[Note: This article originally appeared in the Harvard Gay and Lesbian Review, Winter 1998]
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